////////////////OUT OF AFRICA
//////////////FEW FMLIES OUT OF AFRICA BECAME US
////////////////GRT RIFT VALLEY,OMO RVR,ETHIOPIA
////////////////THRD CHMP OUT OF AFRCA IN THE THRD RCK FRM THE SUN
///////////////195 K YR OLD OLDEST FOSSIL FOUND IN E AFRCA
///////////////ORIGIN OF OUR SPECIES
//////////////////FLATTER HEADED BEETLE BROWED ANCESTOR
/////////////////////WE,ENDANGERED SPECIES OF AF SAVANNA
/////////////////we keep cool BY SWEATING EFFECTIVELY-THE NAKED APE
//////////////////SPRINGY FOOT FOR RUNNING
ALSO EFFECTIVE BUM MS FOR RUNNING-GLUTEUS MAXIMUS
ALSO EFFECTIVE WAS LANGUAGE
AFRICAN CLICK LANGUAGE-NOT TO SCARE AWAY PREY
/////////////////////////African click language 'holds key to origins of earliest human speech'
By Steve Connor, Science Editor
Tuesday, 18 March 2003SHARE PRINT ARTICLE EMAIL ARTICLE TEXT SIZE NORMALLARGEEXTRA LARGE
Echoes of the earliest language spoken by ancient humans tens of thousands of years ago have been preserved in the distinctive clicking sounds still spoken by some African tribes today, scientists have found.
Echoes of the earliest language spoken by ancient humans tens of thousands of years ago have been preserved in the distinctive clicking sounds still spoken by some African tribes today, scientists have found.
The clicks made by the San people of southern Africa and the Hadzabe of East Africa are the linguistic equivalent of living fossils preserved from a much older and more primitive tongue, probably spoken by most of the humans who lived more than 40,000 years ago.
A study by geneticists and linguists has found that people who use click sounds today as part of their vocabulary have almost certainly inherited them from a common ancestor who spoke one of the earliest proto-languages.
The investigation by a team led by Joanna Mountain and Alec Knight of Stanford University in California centred on the genetic relationship between the Hadzabe of north-central Tanzania and the Ju'hoansi San – also known as the !Kung – who live on the Nambia-Botswana border. Although separated by thousands of miles, both groups use the same sort of click sounds and accompanying consonants to communicate, yet their DNA shows that they are unrelated and must have been geographically separated for at least 40,000 years.
More than 30 languages in southern Africa are characterised by a repertoire of click consonants and a few are also known in East Africa. For decades, linguists have assumed that the click languages are all related and must have derived from a common source relatively recently.
Yet the latest study shows that the click speakers in East Africa have had no discernible contact with those in southern Africa for tens of thousand of years. This leaves four scenarios, the scientists say.
The most obvious explanation is that the clicks have been invented independently in the two isolated regions. But Dr Knight and Professor Mountain discount this because a common origin is the most likely explanation for the similarity of the clicks and the way they are used in the languages of East and southern Africa.
"The hypothesis of independent invention, as it applies to the languages of the Hadzabe and San, lacks linguistic support," the scientists say in the journal Current Biology.
Another suggestion is that one group has "borrowed" click speaking from another but this would have brought the two people in close contact over a long period of time and should have resulted in some interbreeding that would be seen in their DNA.
Another reason this is unlikely is that click speaking is difficult to learn for adults because of the tongue distortions it requires. Borrowing the full repertoire of clicks would be almost impossible for non-native speakers, the scientists say.
A third possibility is that the genetic evidence might be tainted in some way by interbreeding with neighbouring tribes to produce an effect known as "gene flow" with non-click speakers. Tests on neighbouring tribes show that this is unlikely.
"The remaining explanation involves independent retention of clicks, possibly for tens of thousands of years, in separate populations leading to the present-day San and Hadzabe," the scientists say. "The deep genetic divergence between the click-speaking groups is consistent with the hypothesis that clicks are an ancient element of human language. If, in fact, San-Hadzabe separation dates back to a time prior to out-of-Africa expansions of modern humans, clicks may be more than 40,000 years old. Under that scenario clicks would have been lost subsequently in most other populations," they add.
One probable scenario is that click speaking came about because it helped people to communicate while hunting – animals are known to be scared by human language but take little notice of click speaking.
Because of this advantage it quickly spread as anatomically modern humans migrated out of their East African cradle around the Great Rift Valley into southern Africa. But many of these small, regional populations could easily have lost their click vocabulary in different hunting environments, the scientists say.
/////////////////////S AF
OLDEST KNWN HUMAN DWELLING- 160K YA
/////////////////STONE BLADES-TOOLS
//////////////////4 MN YRS-HUMAN LIKE SPECIES AROUND
/////////////////////FIRST INSIDE AND THEN OUT OF AFRICA
/////////////////OUR HX IN OUR GENES
/////////////////////HUMANITY HAS SPENT MORE TIME IN AFRICA THAN OUT
/////////////////////Mitochondrial Eve
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Mitochondrial Eve (mt-mrca) is the name given by researchers to the woman who is defined as the matrilineal most recent common ancestor (MRCA) for all currently living humans. Passed down from mother to offspring, her mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is now found in all living humans: every mtDNA in every living person is derived from hers. Mitochondrial Eve is the female counterpart of Y-chromosomal Adam, the patrilineal most recent common ancestor, although they lived at different times.
She is believed to have lived about 170,000 years ago, or roughly 8,000 generations ago. This places her in a period significantly earlier than the out of Africa migration some 60,000 years ago, and close to the first appearance of archaic Homo sapiens itself, roughly contemporary to early fossil evidence found in Ethiopia, such as the Omo remains or the Homo sapiens idaltu fossils. Since Mitochondrial Eve is assumed to have lived in Africa she is sometimes also referred to as African Eve.
Mitochondrial Eve is the MRCA of all humans via the mitochondrial DNA pathway, not the unqualified MRCA of all humanity. All living humans can trace their ancestry back to the MRCA via at least one of their parents, but Mitochondrial Eve is defined via the maternal line. Therefore, she necessarily lived at least as long, though likely much longer, ago than the MRCA of all humanity.
The existence of Mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosomal Adam does not necessarily imply the existence of population bottlenecks or a first couple. They each may have lived within a large human population at different times.
//////////////////////Y-chromosomal Adam
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In human genetics, Y-chromosomal Adam (Y-MRCA) is the patrilineal human most recent common ancestor (MRCA) from whom all Y chromosomes in living men are descended. Y-chromosomal Adam is thus the male counterpart of Mitochondrial Eve (the mt-MRCA), the matrilineal human most recent common ancestor, from whom all mitochondrial DNA in living humans is descended, although they lived at different times.
By analyzing the Y-chromosome DNA from males in all regions of the world, geneticist Spencer Wells has concluded that all humans alive today are descended from a single man who lived in Africa around 60,000 years ago.[1]
However, because the earliest Homo sapiens is thought to have lived around 200,000 years ago, some doubt the validity of this assertion. Possibly there was a genetic isolation and remixing of early ancestral groups within Africa, with one group having been relatively more isolated and therefore having a higher predominance of an ancient Y-chromosome haplotype extant in their culture.[2]
/////////////////////THIN BRANCH OUT OF AFRICA
//////////////////////WHICH WAY OUT OF AFRICA?
////////////////////////125 KYA-SAHARA/SINAI/ARABIA WERE LUSH GREEN
/////////////////////ISRAEL-100 KYA-HUMAN BURIALS-OLDEST HUMAN REMAINS OUTSIDE OF AFRICA-EARLISET EVIDENCE OF SPIRITUALITY/?AFTERLIFE BELIEF-HOWEVER DEAD END
////////////////////RED SEA-GATE OF GRIEF-OUT OF AFRICA-30 KM OD SEA BETN AFRICA AND ARABIA-90KYA-SEA LEVELS DROPPED-SEA GAP BECAME 11 KM
//////////////////ONLY FEW X 100S MADE OUT OF AFRICA
///////////////////OMAN/YEMEN-BLACK STONE TOOLS-DATES BACK 70K YA
//////////////////DHOFAR MOUNTAINS-MONSOON GREEN AREA OF ARABIA
FRESH WATER SPRINGS TO THE ARABIAN LOWER COASTLINE THEN 70KYA
////////////////SO FEW PPL POPULATED THE REST OF THE WORLD
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