//////////////////http://www.fireworkspop.com/Liberty_.htm
///////////////////Children With Hearing Loss and Increased Risk of Injury Mann, J.R., et al. - Children with hearing loss may be at increased risk of injury. Additional study is needed to determine whether children with hearing loss are at increased risk (as opposed to simply seeking hospital care for injuries more often). If so, targeted injury prevention efforts for these children and their families would be warranted [more...]
Annals of Family Medicine, 11/21/07 Free Full Text
Annals of Family Medicine, 11/21/07 Free Full Text
/////////////////////////FDA Adding Warning Labels to Pediatric Flu Vaccines
The Food and Drug Administration have recommended adding label precautions about neurological problems seen in children who have taken two flu drugs -- Tamiflu and Relenza.
In documents prepared for a meeting next week and posted on the FDA's Web site, agency staff recommended that Tamiflu's label be strengthened further to note: "In some cases, these behaviors resulted in serious injuries, including death, in adult and pediatric patients."
The Food and Drug Administration have recommended adding label precautions about neurological problems seen in children who have taken two flu drugs -- Tamiflu and Relenza.
In documents prepared for a meeting next week and posted on the FDA's Web site, agency staff recommended that Tamiflu's label be strengthened further to note: "In some cases, these behaviors resulted in serious injuries, including death, in adult and pediatric patients."
/////////////////////Child wellbeing and income inequality in rich societies Pickett, K.E., et al. - To examine associations between child wellbeing and material living standards (average income), the scale of differentiation in social status (income inequality), and social exclusion (children in relative poverty) in rich developed societies...Improvements in child wellbeing in rich societies may depend more on reductions in inequality than on further economic growth [more...]
British Medical Journal, 11/26/07 Free Full Text
British Medical Journal, 11/26/07 Free Full Text
///////////////////UNDERDOGS-MEDICAL,DISABLED,FINANCIAL=MUD,DUD,PUD
////////////////////ASUD=ALWAYS SUPPORT UNDERDOGS
////////////////////////Differences in Mortality between Late-Preterm and Term Singleton Infants in the United States Tomashek, K.M., et al. - To assess differences in mortality between late-preterm (34-36 weeks) and term (37-41 weeks) infants...Late-preterm infants have higher mortality rates than term infants throughout infancy. Our findings may be used to guide obstetrical and pediatric decision-making [more...]
Journal of Pediatrics, 11/26/07
Journal of Pediatrics, 11/26/07
//////////////////////Posterior Scleritis in a 7-Month-Old Infant Maesen, K.V.D., et al. - This article describes a 7-month-old infant with posterior scleritis, diagnosed on the basis of B-scan ultrasonography and computed tomography. The patient was initially diagnosed with preseptal cellulitis and endophthalmitis. Posterior scleritis should be considered in the differential diagnosis of acute orbital inflammation in children younger than 1 year [more...]
Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology & Strabismus, 11/26/07
Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology & Strabismus, 11/26/07
///////////////////GREENSAVE TIPS
///////////////////HAVE LESS CHILDREN
/////////////////////USE LIBRARY,AVOID BUYING BOOKS
//////////////////////Quality of life assessment in a sample of patients affected by Prader-Willi syndrome Caliandro, P., et al. - Physical and mental aspects of quality of life are impaired in Prader-Willi patients, weight is the clinical finding which mainly influences negatively the physical aspects of quality of life. However, weight does not cause mental problems. These are mainly due to the presence of characteristic facial features [more...]
Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 11/26/07
Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 11/26/07
////////////////////////////CIRCUMCISION PREVENTS HIV INFECTION
/////////////////////////////FRENCH SPIDERMAN CLIMBING GT WALL OF CHINA
//////////////////////Like Father, Like Son: Attractiveness Is Hereditary (November 20, 2007) -- Sexy dads produce sexy sons, in the insect world at least. While scientists already knew that specific attractive traits, from cricket choruses to peacocks' tails, are passed on to their offspring, the heritability of attractiveness as a whole is more contentious. Now, new research shows that attractiveness is hereditary. ... > full story
////////////////////CHOCOLATE DISCOVERED HONDURAS-3000YA
/////////////////////DEEP HX
///////////////EGALITARIAN VS HIERARCHICAL SOCIETY
///////////////////RULERS EXPLOITED NATURE OF BRAIN FOR DOMINANCE=HIRAK RAJAR DESHEY
//////////////////////FRIENDS OF FRIENDS ONLY ASK FOR MONEY OR FAVOURS
//////////////////////VK CHANGES LAW TO PROTECT CTZNS FROM BEING SWAMPED BY JMMIGRN
///////////////////THINK ABT THAT-BST-WHERE DOES THE HR GO ?
/////////////////DONT ASK-DONT CARE
///////////////////CHOWN-STRING THEORY IS BACK-TO EXPLAIN GAP IN COSMOS
/////////////////////On Deep History and the Brain (Hardcover)by Daniel Lord Smail (Author)
var reviewHistPing =
function() {
reviewHistDU.requestUpdate('', '', '', null, null, null, false);
};
n2RunThisWhen( 'lastlibraryloaded',
function() {
reviewHistDU = new N2DynUpObject('reviewHistDU');
reviewHistDU.setHandler('/gp/customer-reviews/common/du/recordHistoPop', 'sd');
reviewHistDU.setTargetElementID('ignoreReviewHistoDiv');
reviewHistDU.cacheResponses(false);
return false;
},
'init everything else'
);
n2RunThisWhen('lastlibraryloaded',
function() {
// instantiate a popover object
reviewHistoPopObj_0520252896 = new N2SimplePopover();
reviewHistoPopObj_0520252896.initialize(
'reviewHistoPop_0520252896',
'reviewHistoPopObj_0520252896'
);
// register popup feature with the events framework
goN2Events.registerFeature(
'reviewHistoPop_0520252896',
'reviewHistoPopObj_0520252896',
'n2MouseOverHotspot',
'n2MouseOutHotspot'
);
reviewHistoPopObj_0520252896.locateAt('below', 'r', 0);
reviewHistoPopObj_0520252896.configureAnimation(null, null, null, null);
reviewHistoPopObj_0520252896.setCallback('afterShow', reviewHistPing);
},
'review histo rollover'
);
1 Review
5 star:
(0)
4 star:
(1)
3 star:
(0)
2 star:
(0)
1 star:
(0)See all customer reviews...
(1 customer review)
List Price:
$21.95
Price:
$14.93 & eligible for FREE Super Saver Shipping on orders over $25. Details
You Save:
$7.02 (32%)
Availability: In Stock. To ensure delivery by December 24, choose FREE Super Saver Shipping. Read more about holiday shipping. Ships from and sold by Amazon.com. Gift-wrap available.
Want it delivered Tuesday, November 27?
0)
{
FT_hours = (FT_days * 24) + FT_hours;
}
window.setTimeout("FT_getTime()", 1000);
var ftCountdown = getTimeRemainingString( FT_hours, FT_mins );
for ( var i = 0; i
Order it in the next 10 hours and 3 minutes, and choose One-Day Shipping at checkout. See details
var timerDiv=document.getElementById("ftMessageTimer");
if (timerDiv && timerDiv.style)
timerDiv.style.display='inline';
19 used & new available from $11.90
‹ Return to Product Overview
Editorial Reviews
Book DescriptionWhen does history begin? What characterizes it? This brilliant and beautifully written book dissolves the logic of a beginning based on writing, civilization, or historical consciousness and offers a model for a history that escapes the continuing grip of the Judeo-Christian time frame. Daniel Lord Smail argues that, in the wake of the decade of the brain and the bestselling historical work of scientists like Jared Diamond, the time has come for fundamentally new ways of thinking about our past. He shows how recent work in evolution and paleohistory makes it possible to join the deep past with the recent past and abandon, once and for all, the idea of prehistory. Making an enormous literature accessible to the general reader, he lays out a bold new case for bringing neuroscience and neurobiology into the realm of history. From the Inside Flap"This is surely a new paradigm for the study of history that will be regarded as revolutionary but which is also well justified. To my knowledge, no other book integrates the study of human history with principles of biological and cultural evolution on such an ambitious scale."--David Sloan Wilson, author of Darwin's Cathedral: Evolution, Religion and the Nature of Society"This is one of the most exciting books I've read in years. It is so accessible, so groundbreaking, so stimulating, so important that I imagine the next generation of historians will be deeply influenced by what Smail has to say here. Simply dazzling."--Lynn Hunt, author of Inventing Human Rights About the AuthorDaniel Lord Smail is Professor of History at Harvard University. He is the author of Imaginary Cartographies (1999), which won the American Historical Association's Herbert Baxter Adams Prize and the Social Science History Association's President's Award; The Consumption of Justice (2003), which won the Law and Society Association's James Willard Hurst Prize; and co-editor of Fama: The Politics of Talk and Reputation in Medieval Europe (2003).
var reviewHistPing =
function() {
reviewHistDU.requestUpdate('', '', '', null, null, null, false);
};
n2RunThisWhen( 'lastlibraryloaded',
function() {
reviewHistDU = new N2DynUpObject('reviewHistDU');
reviewHistDU.setHandler('/gp/customer-reviews/common/du/recordHistoPop', 'sd');
reviewHistDU.setTargetElementID('ignoreReviewHistoDiv');
reviewHistDU.cacheResponses(false);
return false;
},
'init everything else'
);
n2RunThisWhen('lastlibraryloaded',
function() {
// instantiate a popover object
reviewHistoPopObj_0520252896 = new N2SimplePopover();
reviewHistoPopObj_0520252896.initialize(
'reviewHistoPop_0520252896',
'reviewHistoPopObj_0520252896'
);
// register popup feature with the events framework
goN2Events.registerFeature(
'reviewHistoPop_0520252896',
'reviewHistoPopObj_0520252896',
'n2MouseOverHotspot',
'n2MouseOutHotspot'
);
reviewHistoPopObj_0520252896.locateAt('below', 'r', 0);
reviewHistoPopObj_0520252896.configureAnimation(null, null, null, null);
reviewHistoPopObj_0520252896.setCallback('afterShow', reviewHistPing);
},
'review histo rollover'
);
1 Review
5 star:
(0)
4 star:
(1)
3 star:
(0)
2 star:
(0)
1 star:
(0)See all customer reviews...
(1 customer review)
List Price:
$21.95
Price:
$14.93 & eligible for FREE Super Saver Shipping on orders over $25. Details
You Save:
$7.02 (32%)
Availability: In Stock. To ensure delivery by December 24, choose FREE Super Saver Shipping. Read more about holiday shipping. Ships from and sold by Amazon.com. Gift-wrap available.
Want it delivered Tuesday, November 27?
0)
{
FT_hours = (FT_days * 24) + FT_hours;
}
window.setTimeout("FT_getTime()", 1000);
var ftCountdown = getTimeRemainingString( FT_hours, FT_mins );
for ( var i = 0; i
Order it in the next 10 hours and 3 minutes, and choose One-Day Shipping at checkout. See details
var timerDiv=document.getElementById("ftMessageTimer");
if (timerDiv && timerDiv.style)
timerDiv.style.display='inline';
19 used & new available from $11.90
‹ Return to Product Overview
Editorial Reviews
Book DescriptionWhen does history begin? What characterizes it? This brilliant and beautifully written book dissolves the logic of a beginning based on writing, civilization, or historical consciousness and offers a model for a history that escapes the continuing grip of the Judeo-Christian time frame. Daniel Lord Smail argues that, in the wake of the decade of the brain and the bestselling historical work of scientists like Jared Diamond, the time has come for fundamentally new ways of thinking about our past. He shows how recent work in evolution and paleohistory makes it possible to join the deep past with the recent past and abandon, once and for all, the idea of prehistory. Making an enormous literature accessible to the general reader, he lays out a bold new case for bringing neuroscience and neurobiology into the realm of history. From the Inside Flap"This is surely a new paradigm for the study of history that will be regarded as revolutionary but which is also well justified. To my knowledge, no other book integrates the study of human history with principles of biological and cultural evolution on such an ambitious scale."--David Sloan Wilson, author of Darwin's Cathedral: Evolution, Religion and the Nature of Society"This is one of the most exciting books I've read in years. It is so accessible, so groundbreaking, so stimulating, so important that I imagine the next generation of historians will be deeply influenced by what Smail has to say here. Simply dazzling."--Lynn Hunt, author of Inventing Human Rights About the AuthorDaniel Lord Smail is Professor of History at Harvard University. He is the author of Imaginary Cartographies (1999), which won the American Historical Association's Herbert Baxter Adams Prize and the Social Science History Association's President's Award; The Consumption of Justice (2003), which won the Law and Society Association's James Willard Hurst Prize; and co-editor of Fama: The Politics of Talk and Reputation in Medieval Europe (2003).
////////////////////1ST LAND PLANT-465 MYA
ANKLE HIGH SHRUBS-410 MYA
EARLIEST KNOWN TREE-385 MYA
IST ROOTS,SEEDS,LEAVES-370 MYA
MOUNTAIN FORESTS-370 MYA
COAL FOREST-299 MYA
Tree
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Tree (disambiguation).
The coniferous Coast Redwood, the tallest tree species on earth.
Trunk base of a Coast Redwood tree in Jedediah Smith Redwoods State Park: Simpson Reed Discovery Trail, near Crecent City, California
A tree is a perennial woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or trunk with clear apical dominance.[1] A minimum height specification at maturity is cited by some authors, varying from 3 m[2] to 6 m;[3] some authors set a minimum of 10 cm trunk diameter (30 cm girth).[4] Woody plants that do not meet these definitions by having multiple stems and/or small size, are called shrubs. Compared with most other plants, trees are long-lived, some of them getting to be several thousand years old and growing to up to 115 m (375 ft) high.[5]
Trees are an important component of the natural landscape because of their prevention of erosion and the provision of a specific weather-sheltered ecosystem in and under their foliage. Trees have also been found to play an important role in producing oxygen and reducing carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, as well as moderating ground temperatures. They are also significant elements in landscaping and agriculture, both for their aesthetic appeal and their orchard crops (such as apples). Wood from trees is a common building material. Trees also play an intimate role in many of the world's mythologies (see trees in mythology).
Contents[hide]
1 Classification
2 Morphology
3 Champion trees
3.1 Tallest trees
3.2 Stoutest trees
3.3 Largest trees
3.4 Oldest trees
4 Trees in culture
5 Major tree genera
5.1 Flowering plants (Magnoliophyta; angiosperms)
5.1.1 Dicotyledons (Magnoliopsida; broadleaf or hardwood trees)
5.1.2 Monocotyledons (Liliopsida)
5.2 Conifers (Pinophyta; softwood trees)
5.3 Ginkgos (Ginkgophyta)
5.4 Cycads (Cycadophyta)
5.5 Ferns (Pterophyta)
5.6 Fossil Trees
6 See also
7 References
8 Bibliography
9 External links
//
Classification
A Sweet Chestnut tree in Ticino, Switzerland
A tree is a plant form that occurs in many different orders and families of plants. Trees show a wide variety of growth forms, leaf type and shape, bark characteristics, and reproductive organs.
The earliest trees were tree ferns and horsetails, which grew in vast forests in the Carboniferous Period; tree ferns still survive, but the only surviving horsetails are not of tree form. Later, in the Triassic Period, conifers, ginkgos, cycads and other gymnosperms appeared, and subsequently flowering plants in the Cretaceous Period. Most species of trees today are flowering plants (Angiosperms) and conifers. The listing below gives examples of many well-known trees and how they are typically classified.
A small group of trees growing together is called a grove or copse, and a landscape covered by a dense growth of trees is called a forest. Several biotopes are defined largely by the trees that inhabit them; examples are rainforest and taiga (see ecozones). A landscape of trees scattered or spaced across grassland (usually grazed or burned over periodically) is called a savanna. A forest of great age is called old growth forest or ancient woodland (in the UK). A young tree is called a sapling.
Morphology
Leaves are an important feature of trees. These are Beech leaves.
Tree roots anchor the structure and provide water and nutrients. The ground has eroded away around the roots of this young pine tree.
The basic parts of a tree are the roots, trunk(s), branches, twigs and leaves. Tree stems consist mainly of support and transport tissues (xylem and phloem). Wood consists of xylem cells, and bark is made of phloem and other tissues external to the vascular cambium. Trees may be broadly grouped into exogenous and endogenous trees according to the way in which their stem diameter increases. Exogenous trees, which comprise the great majority of trees (all conifers, and almost all broadleaf trees), grow by the addition of new wood outwards, immediately under the bark. Endogenous trees, mainly in the monocotyledons (e.g., palms and dragon trees), but also cacti, grow by addition of new material inwards.
As an exogenous tree grows, it creates growth rings as new wood is laid down concentrically over the old wood. In species growing in areas with seasonal climate changes, wood growth produced at different times of the year may be visible as alternating light and dark, or soft and hard, rings of wood.[3] In temperate climates, and tropical climates with a single wet-dry season alternation, the growth rings are annual, each pair of light and dark rings being one year of growth; these are known as annual rings. In areas with two wet and dry seasons each year, there may be two pairs of light and dark rings each year; and in some (mainly semi-desert regions with irregular rainfall), there may be a new growth ring with each rainfall.[6] In tropical rainforest regions with constant year-round climate, growth is continuous and the growth rings are not visible with no change in the wood texture. In species with annual rings, these rings can be counted to determine the age of the tree, and used to date cores or even wood taken from trees in the past, a practice is known as the science of dendrochronology. Very few tropical trees can be accurately aged in this manner. Age determination is also impossible in endogenous trees.
The roots of a tree are generally embedded in earth, providing anchorage for the above-ground biomass and absorbing water and nutrients from the soil. It should be noted, however, that while ground nutrients are essential to a tree's growth the majority of its biomass comes from carbon dioxide absorbed from the atmosphere (see photosynthesis). Above ground, the trunk gives height to the leaf-bearing branches, aiding in competition with other plant species for sunlight. In many trees, the arrangement of the branches optimizes exposure of the leaves to sunlight.
Not all trees have all the plant organs or parts mentioned above. For example, most palm trees are not branched, the saguaro cactus of North America has no functional leaves, tree ferns do not produce bark, etc. Based on their general shape and size, all of these are nonetheless generally regarded as trees. Indeed, sometimes size is the more important consideration. A plant form that is similar to a tree, but generally having smaller, multiple trunks and/or branches that arise near the ground, is called a shrub. However, no sharp differentiation between shrubs and trees is possible. Given their small size, bonsai plants would not technically be 'trees', but one should not confuse reference to the form of a species with the size or shape of individual specimens. A spruce seedling does not fit the definition of a tree, but all spruces are trees.
Champion trees
The world's champion trees can be considered on several factors; height, trunk diameter or girth, total size, and age. It is significant that in each case, the top position is always held by a conifer, though a different species in each case; in most measures, the second to fourth places are also held by conifers.
Tallest trees
The heights of the tallest trees in the world have been the subject of considerable dispute and much (often wild) exaggeration. Modern verified measurement with laser rangefinders combined with tape drop measurements made by tree climbers, carried out by the U.S. Eastern Native Tree Society has shown that most older measuring methods and measurements are unreliable, often producing exaggerations of 5% to 15% above the real height. Historical claims of trees of 117 m (384 ft), 130 m (427 ft), and even 150 m (492 ft), are now largely disregarded as unreliable, fantasy or outright fraud. The following are now accepted as the top five tallest reliably measured species:
Coast Redwood Sequoia sempervirens: 115.55 m (379.1 ft), Redwood National Park, California, United States[7]
Coast Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii: 99.4 m (326.1 ft), Brummit Creek, Coos County, Oregon, United States[8]
Australian Mountain-ash Eucalyptus regnans: 97.0 m (318.2 ft), Styx Valley, Tasmania, Australia[9]
Sitka Spruce Picea sitchensis: 96.7 m (317.3 ft), Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park, California, United States[10]
Giant Sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum: 94.9 m (311.4 ft), Redwood Mountain Grove, Kings Canyon National Park, California, United States[11]
A view of a tree from below; this may exaggerate apparent height
Stoutest trees
The girth (circumference) of a tree is much easier to measure than the height, as it is a simple matter of stretching a tape round the trunk, and pulling it taut to find the circumference. Despite this, UK tree author Alan Mitchell made the following comment about measurements of yew trees in the British Isles:
"The aberrations of past measurements of yews are beyond belief. For example, the tree at Tisbury has a well-defined, clean, if irregular bole at least 1.5 m long. It has been found to have a girth which has dilated and shrunk in the following way: 11.28 m (1834 Loudon), 9.3 m (1892 Lowe), 10.67 m (1903 Elwes and Henry), 9.0 m (1924 E. Swanton), 9.45 m (1959 Mitchell) .... Earlier measurements have therefore been omitted".[12]
As a general standard, tree girth is taken at 'breast height'; this is defined differently in different situations, with most forestry measurements taking girth at 1.3 m above ground,[13] while those who measure ornamental trees usually measure at 1.5 m above ground;[3] in most cases this makes little difference to the measured girth. On sloping ground, the "above ground" reference point is usually taken as the highest point on the ground touching the trunk,[3][13] but some use the average between the highest and lowest points of ground[citation needed]. Some of the inflated old measurements may have been taken at ground level. Some past exaggerated measurements also result from measuring the complete next-to-bark measurement, pushing the tape in and out over every crevice and buttress.[12]
Modern trends are to cite the tree's diameter rather than the circumference; this is obtained by dividing the measured circumference by π; it assumes the trunk is circular in cross-section (an oval or irregular cross-section would result in a mean diameter slightly greater than the assumed circle). This is cited as dbh (diameter at breast height) in tree and forestry literature.[3][13]
A further problem with measuring baobabs Adansonia is that these trees store large amounts of water in the very soft wood in their trunks. This leads to marked variation in their girth over the year, swelling to a maximum at the end of the rainy season, minimum at the end of the dry season. Although baobabs have some of the highest girth measurements of any trees, no accurate measurements are currently available, but probably do not exceed 10-11 m (33–36 ft) diameter.
The stoutest living single-trunk species in diameter, excluding baobabs, are:
Montezuma Cypress Taxodium mucronatum: 11.62 m, Árbol del Tule, Santa Maria del Tule, Oaxaca, Mexico.[14] Note though that this diameter includes buttressing; the actual idealised diameter of the area of its wood is 9.38 m.[14]
Giant Sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum: 8.85 m (29 ft), General Grant tree, Grant Grove, California, United States[15]
Coast Redwood Sequoia sempervirens: 7.44 m (24.4 ft), Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park, California, United States.[citation needed]
Charles Darwin reported finding Fitzroya cupressoides with trunk circumferences of up to 40 m (130 ft)[16] implying a diameter of about 12 m (40 ft), but this may be an anomaly as the largest known measurements are about 5 m.[17]
An addition problem lies in cases where multiple trunks (whether from an individual tree or multiple trees) grow together. The Sacred Fig is a notable example of this, forming additional 'trunks' by growing adventitious roots down from the branches, which then thicken up when the root reaches the ground to form new trunks; a single Sacred Fig tree can have hundreds of such trunks.[1]
Occasionally, errors may occur due to confusion between girth (circumference) and diameter.[18]
Largest trees
The largest trees in total volume are those which are both tall and of large diameter, and in particular, which hold a large diameter high up the trunk. Measurement is very complex, particularly if branch volume is to be included as well as the trunk volume, so measurements have only been made for a small number of trees, and generally only for the trunk. No attempt has ever been made to include root volume.
The top four species measured[19] so far are:
Giant Sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum: 1,489 m³ (55,040 cu ft), General Sherman[19]
Coast Redwood Sequoia sempervirens: 1,045 m³ (36,890 cu ft), Del Norte Titan tree[19]
Western Redcedar Thuja plicata: 500 m³ (17,650 cu ft ), Quinault Lake Redcedar[19]
Kauri Agathis australis: circa 400 m³ (15,000 cu ft), Tane Mahuta tree[19] (total volume, including branches, 516.7 m³/18,247 cu ft)[19]
However, the Alerce Fitzroya cupressoides, as yet un-measured, may well slot in at third or fourth place, and Montezuma Cypress Taxodium mucronatum and other giants are also likely to be high in the list. The largest angiosperm tree is a Australian Mountain-ash (Eucalyptus regnans) in Tasmania, known as the 'Two Towers' tree, with a volume of 430 m³ (15,185 cu ft).[20]
Oldest trees
The oldest trees are determined by growth rings, which can be seen if the tree is cut down or in cores taken from the edge to the center of the tree. Accurate determination is only possible for trees which produce growth rings, generally those which occur in seasonal climates; trees in uniform non-seasonal tropical climates grow continuously and do not have distinct growth rings. It is also only possible for trees which are solid to the center of the tree; many very old trees become hollow as the dead heartwood decays away. For some of these species, age estimates have been made on the basis of extrapolating current growth rates, but the results are usually little better than guesswork or wild speculation. White (1998)[21] proposes a method of estimating the age of large and veteran trees in the United Kingdom through the correlation between a tree's stem diameter, growth character and age.
The verified oldest measured ages are (Gymnosperm Database):
Great Basin Bristlecone Pine Pinus longaeva: 4,844 years
Alerce Fitzroya cupressoides: 3,622 years
Giant Sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum: 3,266 years
Huon-pine Lagarostrobos franklinii: 2,500 years
Rocky Mountains Bristlecone Pine Pinus aristata: 2,435 years
Other species suspected of reaching exceptional age include European Yew Taxus baccata (probably over 2,000 years[22][23]) and Western Redcedar Thuja plicata.
The oldest reported age for an angiosperm tree is 2293 years for the Sri Maha Bodhi Sacred Fig (Ficus religiosa) planted in 288 BC at Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka; this is also the oldest human-planted tree with a known planting date.
Trees in culture
Main article: Tree (mythology)
The tree has been and still is a popular cultural symbol in most of the world. Common icons are the World tree, for instance Yggdrasil, and the tree of life. The tree often represents nature or the environment itself.
Major tree genera
Flowering plants (Magnoliophyta; angiosperms)
Dicotyledons (Magnoliopsida; broadleaf or hardwood trees)
Altingiaceae (Sweetgum family)
Sweetgum, Liquidambar species
Anacardiaceae (Cashew family)
Cashew, Anacardium occidentale
Mango, Mangifera indica
Eucalyptus niphophila in Namadgi National Park
Pistachio, Pistacia vera
Sumac, Rhus species
Lacquer tree, Toxicodendron verniciflua
Annonaceae (Custard apple family)
Cherimoya Annona cherimola
Custard apple Annona reticulata
Pawpaw Asimina triloba
Soursop Annona muricata
Apocynaceae (Dogbane family)
Pachypodium Pachypodium species
Aquifoliaceae (Holly family)
Holly, Ilex species
Araliaceae (Ivy family)
Kalopanax, Kalopanax pictus
Birch tree (foreground) and maple tree (background) in fall.
Betulaceae (Birch family)
Alder, Alnus species
Birch, Betula species
Hornbeam, Carpinus species
Hazel, Corylus species
Bignoniaceae (family)
Catalpa, Catalpa species
Cactaceae (Cactus family)
Saguaro, Carnegiea gigantea
Cannabaceae (Cannabis family)
Hackberry, Celtis species
Cornaceae (Dogwood family)
Dogwood, Cornus species
Dipterocarpaceae family
Garjan Dipterocarpus species
Sal Shorea species
Ebenaceae (Persimmon family)
Persimmon, Diospyros species
Ericaceae (Heath family)
Arbutus, Arbutus species
Eucommiaceae (Eucommia family)
Eucommia Eucommia ulmoides
Fabaceae (Pea family)
Acacia, Acacia species
Honey locust, Gleditsia triacanthos
Black locust, Robinia pseudoacacia
Laburnum, Laburnum species
Pau Brasil, Brazilwood, Caesalpinia echinata
Fagaceae (Beech family )
Chestnut, Castanea species
Beech, Fagus species
Southern beech, Nothofagus species
Tanoak, Lithocarpus densiflorus
Oak, Quercus species
Fouquieriaceae (Boojum family)
Boojum, Fouquieria columnaris
Hamamelidaceae (Witch-hazel family)
Persian Ironwood, Parrotia persica
Juglandaceae (Walnut family)
Walnut, Juglans species
Hickory, Carya species
Wingnut, Pterocarya species
Lauraceae (Laurel family)
Cinnamon Cinnamomum zeylanicum
Bay Laurel Laurus nobilis
Avocado Persea americana
Lecythidaceae (Paradise nut family)
Brazil Nut Bertholletia excelsa
Lythraceae Loosestrife family
Crape-myrtle Lagerstroemia species
Magnoliaceae (Magnolia family)
Tulip tree, Liriodendron species
Magnolia, Magnolia species
Malvaceae (Mallow family; including Tiliaceae and Bombacaceae)
Baobab tree in South-Africa.
Baobab, Adansonia species
Silk-cotton tree, Bombax species
Bottletrees, Brachychiton species
Kapok, Ceiba pentandra
Durian, Durio zibethinus
Balsa, Ochroma lagopus
Cacao (cocoa), Theobroma cacao
Linden (Basswood, Lime), Tilia species
Meliaceae (Mahogany family)
Neem, Azadirachta indica
Bead tree, Melia azedarach
Mahogany, Swietenia mahagoni
Moraceae (Mulberry family)
Eucalyptus bridgesiana on Red Hill, Australian Capital Territory.
Fig, Ficus species
Mulberry, Morus species
Myristicaceae (Nutmeg family)
Nutmeg, Mysristica fragrans
Myrtaceae (Myrtle family)
Eucalyptus, Eucalyptus species
Myrtle, Myrtus species
Guava, Psidium guajava
Nyssaceae: a Dove tree in flower
Nyssaceae (Tupelo family; sometimes included in Cornaceae)
Tupelo, Nyssa species
Dove tree, Davidia involucrata
Oleaceae (Olive family)
Olive, Olea europaea
Ash, Fraxinus species
Paulowniaceae (Paulownia family)
Foxglove Tree, Paulownia species
Platanaceae (Plane family)
Plane, Platanus species
Rhizophoraceae (Mangrove family)
Red Mangrove, Rhizophora mangle
Rosaceae (Rose family)
Rowans, Whitebeams, Service Trees Sorbus species
Hawthorn, Crataegus species
Pear, Pyrus species
Apple, Malus species
Almond, Prunus dulcis
Peach, Prunus persica
Apricot, Prunus armeniaca
Plum, Prunus domestica
Cherry, Prunus species
Rubiaceae (Bedstraw family)
Coffee, Coffea species
Rutaceae (Rue family)
Citrus, Citrus species
Cork-tree, Phellodendron species
Euodia, Tetradium species
Salicaceae (Willow family)
Aspen, Populus species
Poplar, Populus species
Willow, Salix species
Yellow maple in fall.
Sapindaceae (including Aceraceae, Hippocastanaceae) (Soapberry family)
Maple, Acer species
Buckeye, Horse-chestnut, Aesculus species
Mexican Buckeye, Ungnadia speciosa
Lychee, Litchi sinensis
Golden rain tree, Koelreuteria
Sapotaceae (Sapodilla family)
Argan, Argania spinosa
Gutta-percha, Palaquium species
Tambalacoque, or "dodo tree", Sideroxylon grandiflorum, previously Calvaria major
Simaroubaceae family
Tree of heaven, Ailanthus species
Theaceae (Camellia family)
Gordonia, Gordonia species
Stewartia, Stewartia species
Thymelaeaceae (Thymelaea family)
Ramin, Gonystylus species
Ulmaceae (Elm family)
Elm, Ulmus species
Zelkova, Zelkova species
Verbenaceae family
Teak, Tectona species
Monocotyledons (Liliopsida)
Coconut Palm, a monocotyledonous tree.
Agavaceae (Agave family)
Cabbage tree, Cordyline australis
Dragon tree, Dracaena draco
Joshua tree, Yucca brevifolia
Arecaceae (Palmae) (Palm family)
Areca Nut, Areca catechu
Coconut Cocos nucifera
Date Palm, Phoenix dactylifera
Chusan Palm, Trachycarpus fortunei
Poaceae (grass family)
Bamboos Poaceae subfamily Bambusoideae
Note that banana 'trees' are not actually trees; they are not woody nor is the stalk perennial.
Conifers (Pinophyta; softwood trees)
Araucariaceae (Araucaria family)
Araucaria, Araucaria species
Kauri, Agathis species
Wollemia, Wollemia nobilis
Cupressaceae (Cypress family)
Cypress, Cupressus species
Cypress, Chamaecyparis species
Juniper, Juniperus species
Alerce or Patagonian cypress, Fitzroya cupressoides
Sugi, Cryptomeria japonica
Coast Redwood, Sequoia sempervirens
Giant Sequoia, Sequoiadendron giganteum
Dawn Redwood, Metasequoia glyptostroboides
Western Redcedar Thuja plicata
Bald Cypress, Taxodium species
Pinaceae (Pine family)
White pine, Pinus species
Pinyon pine, Pinus species
Pine, Pinus species
Spruce, Picea species
Larch, Larix species
Douglas-fir, Pseudotsuga species
Fir, Abies species
Cedar, Cedrus species
Podocarpaceae (Yellowwood family)
African Yellowwood, Afrocarpus falcatus
Totara, Podocarpus totara
Miro, Prumnopitys ferruginea
Kahikatea, Dacrycarpus dacrydioides
Rimu, Dacrydium cupressinum
Sciadopityaceae,
Kusamaki, Sciadopitys species
Taxaceae (Yew family)
Yew, Taxus species
Ginkgos (Ginkgophyta)
Ginkgoaceae (Ginkgo family)
Ginkgo, Ginkgo biloba
Cycads (Cycadophyta)
Cycadaceae family
Ngathu cycad, Cycas angulata
Zamiaceae family
Wunu cycad, Lepidozamia hopei
Ferns (Pterophyta)
Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae families
Tree ferns, Cyathea, Alsophila, Dicksonia (not a monophyletic group)
Fossil Trees
Wattieza, the oldest known tree
See also
A moss-covered tree near Orosí, Costa Rica.
A tree at spring, before the coming of leaves
Arboretum
Pinetum
Arboriculture (the care of trees)
Arborsculpture (shaping trees)
Bonsai
Christmas tree
Dendrology (the study of trees)
Dendrochronology
Dendroclimatology
Ecology
Tree line
Exploding tree
Forest
Forestry
Deforestation
Plantation
Urban forestry
Woodland management
Fruit trees
List of famous trees
List of garden plants
Plants
Prehistoric plants
Tree climbing
Trees in mythology
Trees of the world
Trees of Britain and Ireland
Trees of Canada
Identification of trees of the United States
List of U.S. state trees
Trees of the Caribbean Basin
Trees of Iran
List of trees native to New Zealand
Wood
List of woods
Xiloteque
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Tree (disambiguation).
The coniferous Coast Redwood, the tallest tree species on earth.
Trunk base of a Coast Redwood tree in Jedediah Smith Redwoods State Park: Simpson Reed Discovery Trail, near Crecent City, California
A tree is a perennial woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or trunk with clear apical dominance.[1] A minimum height specification at maturity is cited by some authors, varying from 3 m[2] to 6 m;[3] some authors set a minimum of 10 cm trunk diameter (30 cm girth).[4] Woody plants that do not meet these definitions by having multiple stems and/or small size, are called shrubs. Compared with most other plants, trees are long-lived, some of them getting to be several thousand years old and growing to up to 115 m (375 ft) high.[5]
Trees are an important component of the natural landscape because of their prevention of erosion and the provision of a specific weather-sheltered ecosystem in and under their foliage. Trees have also been found to play an important role in producing oxygen and reducing carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, as well as moderating ground temperatures. They are also significant elements in landscaping and agriculture, both for their aesthetic appeal and their orchard crops (such as apples). Wood from trees is a common building material. Trees also play an intimate role in many of the world's mythologies (see trees in mythology).
Contents[hide]
1 Classification
2 Morphology
3 Champion trees
3.1 Tallest trees
3.2 Stoutest trees
3.3 Largest trees
3.4 Oldest trees
4 Trees in culture
5 Major tree genera
5.1 Flowering plants (Magnoliophyta; angiosperms)
5.1.1 Dicotyledons (Magnoliopsida; broadleaf or hardwood trees)
5.1.2 Monocotyledons (Liliopsida)
5.2 Conifers (Pinophyta; softwood trees)
5.3 Ginkgos (Ginkgophyta)
5.4 Cycads (Cycadophyta)
5.5 Ferns (Pterophyta)
5.6 Fossil Trees
6 See also
7 References
8 Bibliography
9 External links
//
Classification
A Sweet Chestnut tree in Ticino, Switzerland
A tree is a plant form that occurs in many different orders and families of plants. Trees show a wide variety of growth forms, leaf type and shape, bark characteristics, and reproductive organs.
The earliest trees were tree ferns and horsetails, which grew in vast forests in the Carboniferous Period; tree ferns still survive, but the only surviving horsetails are not of tree form. Later, in the Triassic Period, conifers, ginkgos, cycads and other gymnosperms appeared, and subsequently flowering plants in the Cretaceous Period. Most species of trees today are flowering plants (Angiosperms) and conifers. The listing below gives examples of many well-known trees and how they are typically classified.
A small group of trees growing together is called a grove or copse, and a landscape covered by a dense growth of trees is called a forest. Several biotopes are defined largely by the trees that inhabit them; examples are rainforest and taiga (see ecozones). A landscape of trees scattered or spaced across grassland (usually grazed or burned over periodically) is called a savanna. A forest of great age is called old growth forest or ancient woodland (in the UK). A young tree is called a sapling.
Morphology
Leaves are an important feature of trees. These are Beech leaves.
Tree roots anchor the structure and provide water and nutrients. The ground has eroded away around the roots of this young pine tree.
The basic parts of a tree are the roots, trunk(s), branches, twigs and leaves. Tree stems consist mainly of support and transport tissues (xylem and phloem). Wood consists of xylem cells, and bark is made of phloem and other tissues external to the vascular cambium. Trees may be broadly grouped into exogenous and endogenous trees according to the way in which their stem diameter increases. Exogenous trees, which comprise the great majority of trees (all conifers, and almost all broadleaf trees), grow by the addition of new wood outwards, immediately under the bark. Endogenous trees, mainly in the monocotyledons (e.g., palms and dragon trees), but also cacti, grow by addition of new material inwards.
As an exogenous tree grows, it creates growth rings as new wood is laid down concentrically over the old wood. In species growing in areas with seasonal climate changes, wood growth produced at different times of the year may be visible as alternating light and dark, or soft and hard, rings of wood.[3] In temperate climates, and tropical climates with a single wet-dry season alternation, the growth rings are annual, each pair of light and dark rings being one year of growth; these are known as annual rings. In areas with two wet and dry seasons each year, there may be two pairs of light and dark rings each year; and in some (mainly semi-desert regions with irregular rainfall), there may be a new growth ring with each rainfall.[6] In tropical rainforest regions with constant year-round climate, growth is continuous and the growth rings are not visible with no change in the wood texture. In species with annual rings, these rings can be counted to determine the age of the tree, and used to date cores or even wood taken from trees in the past, a practice is known as the science of dendrochronology. Very few tropical trees can be accurately aged in this manner. Age determination is also impossible in endogenous trees.
The roots of a tree are generally embedded in earth, providing anchorage for the above-ground biomass and absorbing water and nutrients from the soil. It should be noted, however, that while ground nutrients are essential to a tree's growth the majority of its biomass comes from carbon dioxide absorbed from the atmosphere (see photosynthesis). Above ground, the trunk gives height to the leaf-bearing branches, aiding in competition with other plant species for sunlight. In many trees, the arrangement of the branches optimizes exposure of the leaves to sunlight.
Not all trees have all the plant organs or parts mentioned above. For example, most palm trees are not branched, the saguaro cactus of North America has no functional leaves, tree ferns do not produce bark, etc. Based on their general shape and size, all of these are nonetheless generally regarded as trees. Indeed, sometimes size is the more important consideration. A plant form that is similar to a tree, but generally having smaller, multiple trunks and/or branches that arise near the ground, is called a shrub. However, no sharp differentiation between shrubs and trees is possible. Given their small size, bonsai plants would not technically be 'trees', but one should not confuse reference to the form of a species with the size or shape of individual specimens. A spruce seedling does not fit the definition of a tree, but all spruces are trees.
Champion trees
The world's champion trees can be considered on several factors; height, trunk diameter or girth, total size, and age. It is significant that in each case, the top position is always held by a conifer, though a different species in each case; in most measures, the second to fourth places are also held by conifers.
Tallest trees
The heights of the tallest trees in the world have been the subject of considerable dispute and much (often wild) exaggeration. Modern verified measurement with laser rangefinders combined with tape drop measurements made by tree climbers, carried out by the U.S. Eastern Native Tree Society has shown that most older measuring methods and measurements are unreliable, often producing exaggerations of 5% to 15% above the real height. Historical claims of trees of 117 m (384 ft), 130 m (427 ft), and even 150 m (492 ft), are now largely disregarded as unreliable, fantasy or outright fraud. The following are now accepted as the top five tallest reliably measured species:
Coast Redwood Sequoia sempervirens: 115.55 m (379.1 ft), Redwood National Park, California, United States[7]
Coast Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii: 99.4 m (326.1 ft), Brummit Creek, Coos County, Oregon, United States[8]
Australian Mountain-ash Eucalyptus regnans: 97.0 m (318.2 ft), Styx Valley, Tasmania, Australia[9]
Sitka Spruce Picea sitchensis: 96.7 m (317.3 ft), Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park, California, United States[10]
Giant Sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum: 94.9 m (311.4 ft), Redwood Mountain Grove, Kings Canyon National Park, California, United States[11]
A view of a tree from below; this may exaggerate apparent height
Stoutest trees
The girth (circumference) of a tree is much easier to measure than the height, as it is a simple matter of stretching a tape round the trunk, and pulling it taut to find the circumference. Despite this, UK tree author Alan Mitchell made the following comment about measurements of yew trees in the British Isles:
"The aberrations of past measurements of yews are beyond belief. For example, the tree at Tisbury has a well-defined, clean, if irregular bole at least 1.5 m long. It has been found to have a girth which has dilated and shrunk in the following way: 11.28 m (1834 Loudon), 9.3 m (1892 Lowe), 10.67 m (1903 Elwes and Henry), 9.0 m (1924 E. Swanton), 9.45 m (1959 Mitchell) .... Earlier measurements have therefore been omitted".[12]
As a general standard, tree girth is taken at 'breast height'; this is defined differently in different situations, with most forestry measurements taking girth at 1.3 m above ground,[13] while those who measure ornamental trees usually measure at 1.5 m above ground;[3] in most cases this makes little difference to the measured girth. On sloping ground, the "above ground" reference point is usually taken as the highest point on the ground touching the trunk,[3][13] but some use the average between the highest and lowest points of ground[citation needed]. Some of the inflated old measurements may have been taken at ground level. Some past exaggerated measurements also result from measuring the complete next-to-bark measurement, pushing the tape in and out over every crevice and buttress.[12]
Modern trends are to cite the tree's diameter rather than the circumference; this is obtained by dividing the measured circumference by π; it assumes the trunk is circular in cross-section (an oval or irregular cross-section would result in a mean diameter slightly greater than the assumed circle). This is cited as dbh (diameter at breast height) in tree and forestry literature.[3][13]
A further problem with measuring baobabs Adansonia is that these trees store large amounts of water in the very soft wood in their trunks. This leads to marked variation in their girth over the year, swelling to a maximum at the end of the rainy season, minimum at the end of the dry season. Although baobabs have some of the highest girth measurements of any trees, no accurate measurements are currently available, but probably do not exceed 10-11 m (33–36 ft) diameter.
The stoutest living single-trunk species in diameter, excluding baobabs, are:
Montezuma Cypress Taxodium mucronatum: 11.62 m, Árbol del Tule, Santa Maria del Tule, Oaxaca, Mexico.[14] Note though that this diameter includes buttressing; the actual idealised diameter of the area of its wood is 9.38 m.[14]
Giant Sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum: 8.85 m (29 ft), General Grant tree, Grant Grove, California, United States[15]
Coast Redwood Sequoia sempervirens: 7.44 m (24.4 ft), Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park, California, United States.[citation needed]
Charles Darwin reported finding Fitzroya cupressoides with trunk circumferences of up to 40 m (130 ft)[16] implying a diameter of about 12 m (40 ft), but this may be an anomaly as the largest known measurements are about 5 m.[17]
An addition problem lies in cases where multiple trunks (whether from an individual tree or multiple trees) grow together. The Sacred Fig is a notable example of this, forming additional 'trunks' by growing adventitious roots down from the branches, which then thicken up when the root reaches the ground to form new trunks; a single Sacred Fig tree can have hundreds of such trunks.[1]
Occasionally, errors may occur due to confusion between girth (circumference) and diameter.[18]
Largest trees
The largest trees in total volume are those which are both tall and of large diameter, and in particular, which hold a large diameter high up the trunk. Measurement is very complex, particularly if branch volume is to be included as well as the trunk volume, so measurements have only been made for a small number of trees, and generally only for the trunk. No attempt has ever been made to include root volume.
The top four species measured[19] so far are:
Giant Sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum: 1,489 m³ (55,040 cu ft), General Sherman[19]
Coast Redwood Sequoia sempervirens: 1,045 m³ (36,890 cu ft), Del Norte Titan tree[19]
Western Redcedar Thuja plicata: 500 m³ (17,650 cu ft ), Quinault Lake Redcedar[19]
Kauri Agathis australis: circa 400 m³ (15,000 cu ft), Tane Mahuta tree[19] (total volume, including branches, 516.7 m³/18,247 cu ft)[19]
However, the Alerce Fitzroya cupressoides, as yet un-measured, may well slot in at third or fourth place, and Montezuma Cypress Taxodium mucronatum and other giants are also likely to be high in the list. The largest angiosperm tree is a Australian Mountain-ash (Eucalyptus regnans) in Tasmania, known as the 'Two Towers' tree, with a volume of 430 m³ (15,185 cu ft).[20]
Oldest trees
The oldest trees are determined by growth rings, which can be seen if the tree is cut down or in cores taken from the edge to the center of the tree. Accurate determination is only possible for trees which produce growth rings, generally those which occur in seasonal climates; trees in uniform non-seasonal tropical climates grow continuously and do not have distinct growth rings. It is also only possible for trees which are solid to the center of the tree; many very old trees become hollow as the dead heartwood decays away. For some of these species, age estimates have been made on the basis of extrapolating current growth rates, but the results are usually little better than guesswork or wild speculation. White (1998)[21] proposes a method of estimating the age of large and veteran trees in the United Kingdom through the correlation between a tree's stem diameter, growth character and age.
The verified oldest measured ages are (Gymnosperm Database):
Great Basin Bristlecone Pine Pinus longaeva: 4,844 years
Alerce Fitzroya cupressoides: 3,622 years
Giant Sequoia Sequoiadendron giganteum: 3,266 years
Huon-pine Lagarostrobos franklinii: 2,500 years
Rocky Mountains Bristlecone Pine Pinus aristata: 2,435 years
Other species suspected of reaching exceptional age include European Yew Taxus baccata (probably over 2,000 years[22][23]) and Western Redcedar Thuja plicata.
The oldest reported age for an angiosperm tree is 2293 years for the Sri Maha Bodhi Sacred Fig (Ficus religiosa) planted in 288 BC at Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka; this is also the oldest human-planted tree with a known planting date.
Trees in culture
Main article: Tree (mythology)
The tree has been and still is a popular cultural symbol in most of the world. Common icons are the World tree, for instance Yggdrasil, and the tree of life. The tree often represents nature or the environment itself.
Major tree genera
Flowering plants (Magnoliophyta; angiosperms)
Dicotyledons (Magnoliopsida; broadleaf or hardwood trees)
Altingiaceae (Sweetgum family)
Sweetgum, Liquidambar species
Anacardiaceae (Cashew family)
Cashew, Anacardium occidentale
Mango, Mangifera indica
Eucalyptus niphophila in Namadgi National Park
Pistachio, Pistacia vera
Sumac, Rhus species
Lacquer tree, Toxicodendron verniciflua
Annonaceae (Custard apple family)
Cherimoya Annona cherimola
Custard apple Annona reticulata
Pawpaw Asimina triloba
Soursop Annona muricata
Apocynaceae (Dogbane family)
Pachypodium Pachypodium species
Aquifoliaceae (Holly family)
Holly, Ilex species
Araliaceae (Ivy family)
Kalopanax, Kalopanax pictus
Birch tree (foreground) and maple tree (background) in fall.
Betulaceae (Birch family)
Alder, Alnus species
Birch, Betula species
Hornbeam, Carpinus species
Hazel, Corylus species
Bignoniaceae (family)
Catalpa, Catalpa species
Cactaceae (Cactus family)
Saguaro, Carnegiea gigantea
Cannabaceae (Cannabis family)
Hackberry, Celtis species
Cornaceae (Dogwood family)
Dogwood, Cornus species
Dipterocarpaceae family
Garjan Dipterocarpus species
Sal Shorea species
Ebenaceae (Persimmon family)
Persimmon, Diospyros species
Ericaceae (Heath family)
Arbutus, Arbutus species
Eucommiaceae (Eucommia family)
Eucommia Eucommia ulmoides
Fabaceae (Pea family)
Acacia, Acacia species
Honey locust, Gleditsia triacanthos
Black locust, Robinia pseudoacacia
Laburnum, Laburnum species
Pau Brasil, Brazilwood, Caesalpinia echinata
Fagaceae (Beech family )
Chestnut, Castanea species
Beech, Fagus species
Southern beech, Nothofagus species
Tanoak, Lithocarpus densiflorus
Oak, Quercus species
Fouquieriaceae (Boojum family)
Boojum, Fouquieria columnaris
Hamamelidaceae (Witch-hazel family)
Persian Ironwood, Parrotia persica
Juglandaceae (Walnut family)
Walnut, Juglans species
Hickory, Carya species
Wingnut, Pterocarya species
Lauraceae (Laurel family)
Cinnamon Cinnamomum zeylanicum
Bay Laurel Laurus nobilis
Avocado Persea americana
Lecythidaceae (Paradise nut family)
Brazil Nut Bertholletia excelsa
Lythraceae Loosestrife family
Crape-myrtle Lagerstroemia species
Magnoliaceae (Magnolia family)
Tulip tree, Liriodendron species
Magnolia, Magnolia species
Malvaceae (Mallow family; including Tiliaceae and Bombacaceae)
Baobab tree in South-Africa.
Baobab, Adansonia species
Silk-cotton tree, Bombax species
Bottletrees, Brachychiton species
Kapok, Ceiba pentandra
Durian, Durio zibethinus
Balsa, Ochroma lagopus
Cacao (cocoa), Theobroma cacao
Linden (Basswood, Lime), Tilia species
Meliaceae (Mahogany family)
Neem, Azadirachta indica
Bead tree, Melia azedarach
Mahogany, Swietenia mahagoni
Moraceae (Mulberry family)
Eucalyptus bridgesiana on Red Hill, Australian Capital Territory.
Fig, Ficus species
Mulberry, Morus species
Myristicaceae (Nutmeg family)
Nutmeg, Mysristica fragrans
Myrtaceae (Myrtle family)
Eucalyptus, Eucalyptus species
Myrtle, Myrtus species
Guava, Psidium guajava
Nyssaceae: a Dove tree in flower
Nyssaceae (Tupelo family; sometimes included in Cornaceae)
Tupelo, Nyssa species
Dove tree, Davidia involucrata
Oleaceae (Olive family)
Olive, Olea europaea
Ash, Fraxinus species
Paulowniaceae (Paulownia family)
Foxglove Tree, Paulownia species
Platanaceae (Plane family)
Plane, Platanus species
Rhizophoraceae (Mangrove family)
Red Mangrove, Rhizophora mangle
Rosaceae (Rose family)
Rowans, Whitebeams, Service Trees Sorbus species
Hawthorn, Crataegus species
Pear, Pyrus species
Apple, Malus species
Almond, Prunus dulcis
Peach, Prunus persica
Apricot, Prunus armeniaca
Plum, Prunus domestica
Cherry, Prunus species
Rubiaceae (Bedstraw family)
Coffee, Coffea species
Rutaceae (Rue family)
Citrus, Citrus species
Cork-tree, Phellodendron species
Euodia, Tetradium species
Salicaceae (Willow family)
Aspen, Populus species
Poplar, Populus species
Willow, Salix species
Yellow maple in fall.
Sapindaceae (including Aceraceae, Hippocastanaceae) (Soapberry family)
Maple, Acer species
Buckeye, Horse-chestnut, Aesculus species
Mexican Buckeye, Ungnadia speciosa
Lychee, Litchi sinensis
Golden rain tree, Koelreuteria
Sapotaceae (Sapodilla family)
Argan, Argania spinosa
Gutta-percha, Palaquium species
Tambalacoque, or "dodo tree", Sideroxylon grandiflorum, previously Calvaria major
Simaroubaceae family
Tree of heaven, Ailanthus species
Theaceae (Camellia family)
Gordonia, Gordonia species
Stewartia, Stewartia species
Thymelaeaceae (Thymelaea family)
Ramin, Gonystylus species
Ulmaceae (Elm family)
Elm, Ulmus species
Zelkova, Zelkova species
Verbenaceae family
Teak, Tectona species
Monocotyledons (Liliopsida)
Coconut Palm, a monocotyledonous tree.
Agavaceae (Agave family)
Cabbage tree, Cordyline australis
Dragon tree, Dracaena draco
Joshua tree, Yucca brevifolia
Arecaceae (Palmae) (Palm family)
Areca Nut, Areca catechu
Coconut Cocos nucifera
Date Palm, Phoenix dactylifera
Chusan Palm, Trachycarpus fortunei
Poaceae (grass family)
Bamboos Poaceae subfamily Bambusoideae
Note that banana 'trees' are not actually trees; they are not woody nor is the stalk perennial.
Conifers (Pinophyta; softwood trees)
Araucariaceae (Araucaria family)
Araucaria, Araucaria species
Kauri, Agathis species
Wollemia, Wollemia nobilis
Cupressaceae (Cypress family)
Cypress, Cupressus species
Cypress, Chamaecyparis species
Juniper, Juniperus species
Alerce or Patagonian cypress, Fitzroya cupressoides
Sugi, Cryptomeria japonica
Coast Redwood, Sequoia sempervirens
Giant Sequoia, Sequoiadendron giganteum
Dawn Redwood, Metasequoia glyptostroboides
Western Redcedar Thuja plicata
Bald Cypress, Taxodium species
Pinaceae (Pine family)
White pine, Pinus species
Pinyon pine, Pinus species
Pine, Pinus species
Spruce, Picea species
Larch, Larix species
Douglas-fir, Pseudotsuga species
Fir, Abies species
Cedar, Cedrus species
Podocarpaceae (Yellowwood family)
African Yellowwood, Afrocarpus falcatus
Totara, Podocarpus totara
Miro, Prumnopitys ferruginea
Kahikatea, Dacrycarpus dacrydioides
Rimu, Dacrydium cupressinum
Sciadopityaceae,
Kusamaki, Sciadopitys species
Taxaceae (Yew family)
Yew, Taxus species
Ginkgos (Ginkgophyta)
Ginkgoaceae (Ginkgo family)
Ginkgo, Ginkgo biloba
Cycads (Cycadophyta)
Cycadaceae family
Ngathu cycad, Cycas angulata
Zamiaceae family
Wunu cycad, Lepidozamia hopei
Ferns (Pterophyta)
Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae families
Tree ferns, Cyathea, Alsophila, Dicksonia (not a monophyletic group)
Fossil Trees
Wattieza, the oldest known tree
See also
A moss-covered tree near Orosí, Costa Rica.
A tree at spring, before the coming of leaves
Arboretum
Pinetum
Arboriculture (the care of trees)
Arborsculpture (shaping trees)
Bonsai
Christmas tree
Dendrology (the study of trees)
Dendrochronology
Dendroclimatology
Ecology
Tree line
Exploding tree
Forest
Forestry
Deforestation
Plantation
Urban forestry
Woodland management
Fruit trees
List of famous trees
List of garden plants
Plants
Prehistoric plants
Tree climbing
Trees in mythology
Trees of the world
Trees of Britain and Ireland
Trees of Canada
Identification of trees of the United States
List of U.S. state trees
Trees of the Caribbean Basin
Trees of Iran
List of trees native to New Zealand
Wood
List of woods
Xiloteque
//////////////////////Vonnegut on Progress
"Every passing hour brings the Solar System forty-three thousand miles closer to Globular Cluster M13 in Hercules, and still there are some misfits who insist that there is no such thing as progress. "
Kurt Vonnegut
"Every passing hour brings the Solar System forty-three thousand miles closer to Globular Cluster M13 in Hercules, and still there are some misfits who insist that there is no such thing as progress. "
Kurt Vonnegut
//////////////////Human Evolution -A Galaxy Insight
"As I tapped and chiseled there in the foundations of the world, I had ample time to consider the cunning manipulability of the human fingers. Experimentally, I crooked one of the long slender bones. It might have been silica, I thought, or aluminum, or iron -the cells would have made it possible. But no, it is calcium, carbonate of lime. Why? Only because of its history. Elements more numerous than calcium in the earth's crust could have been used to build the skeleton. Our history is the reason -we came from the water. It was there that the cells took the lime habit, and they kept it after we came ashore."
Loren Eiseley -American paleontologist and author of Darwin's Century, The Unexpected Universe, and the haunting Immense Journey.
Loren Eiseley was born on the bleak plains of Nebraska in 1907, a haunted man who grew up in a haunted house, dominated by the stoney silence of a deaf, mentally unstable mother- a cosmic outcast whose etched sense ''aloneness in the universe'' infused his brilliant essays on science and man's place in the universe with a stark, terrifying beauty.
The literature of the American plains is largely a literature of suffering, madness, purification by fire and "bones under the sun, failed and buried lives" that Eiseley captured in his writing. His empathy with life in all its forms, and particularly with its lost outcasts -a ''the love that transcends the boundaries of species''- flowed from his recognition of the odds against any life in an indifferent and constantly shifting cosmos be it unearthing the skull of a long-dead Plains Indian to his description a dog washed up on a beach in Curacao, ''mingling the little lime of his bones with all else that had once stood upright on these shores.''
In his journals he wrote of our immense journey as a species that "eventually man would learn, to his humiliation, that his road was the road of other creatures, that it was marked with all the cryptic ambiguities which constantly beset the evolutionary pathway - that through these same rents and fissures, biological failures, or seeming failures, might tumble through the life-withholding mesh into paradoxical success."
Posted by Casey Kazan.
"As I tapped and chiseled there in the foundations of the world, I had ample time to consider the cunning manipulability of the human fingers. Experimentally, I crooked one of the long slender bones. It might have been silica, I thought, or aluminum, or iron -the cells would have made it possible. But no, it is calcium, carbonate of lime. Why? Only because of its history. Elements more numerous than calcium in the earth's crust could have been used to build the skeleton. Our history is the reason -we came from the water. It was there that the cells took the lime habit, and they kept it after we came ashore."
Loren Eiseley -American paleontologist and author of Darwin's Century, The Unexpected Universe, and the haunting Immense Journey.
Loren Eiseley was born on the bleak plains of Nebraska in 1907, a haunted man who grew up in a haunted house, dominated by the stoney silence of a deaf, mentally unstable mother- a cosmic outcast whose etched sense ''aloneness in the universe'' infused his brilliant essays on science and man's place in the universe with a stark, terrifying beauty.
The literature of the American plains is largely a literature of suffering, madness, purification by fire and "bones under the sun, failed and buried lives" that Eiseley captured in his writing. His empathy with life in all its forms, and particularly with its lost outcasts -a ''the love that transcends the boundaries of species''- flowed from his recognition of the odds against any life in an indifferent and constantly shifting cosmos be it unearthing the skull of a long-dead Plains Indian to his description a dog washed up on a beach in Curacao, ''mingling the little lime of his bones with all else that had once stood upright on these shores.''
In his journals he wrote of our immense journey as a species that "eventually man would learn, to his humiliation, that his road was the road of other creatures, that it was marked with all the cryptic ambiguities which constantly beset the evolutionary pathway - that through these same rents and fissures, biological failures, or seeming failures, might tumble through the life-withholding mesh into paradoxical success."
Posted by Casey Kazan.
///////////////////GCR-DRUG RASH-MORBILLIFORM CONFLUENT,CAN EXFOLIATE IF DRUG GIVEN AGAIN
/////////////////////DRUG RASH UPO
////////////////////Unclean ambulances help spread superbugs, claims unionGuardian Unlimited - 2 hours agoNHS ambulances could be helping to spread potentially deadly infections such as MRSA, a union said today. Poor cleaning arrangements and a lack of resources is exacerbating the problem, a nationwide Unison survey found.
///////////////////Bangladesh cyclone like 'mini-tsunami': UN official Geneva (AFP) Nov 23, 2007 - The impact of cyclone Sidr on Bangladesh can be compared to a "mini-tsunami" and there is a continued urgent need for international aid, the United Nations humanitarian affairs office said Friday. "It's essentially a mini-tsunami," said Elisabeth Byrs, spokeswoman for the UN's Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. "When you see the damage caused on the coast, they are just ... more
////////////////////The missing grey cells that help to create an obsessiveTimes Online - 8 hours agoScientists at Cambridge have found changes in the brain that are linked to obsessive-compulsive disorder. The condition is quite common, affecting 2 to 3 per cent of the population, and is marked by obsessions and constantly repeated actions.
//////////////////RIP OFF=FINANCIAL COLONIC
/////////////////////
No comments:
Post a Comment