////////////////The Evolution of Morality (Life & Mind) (Hardcover) "Morality", that sense of doing good, or at least avoiding harm, to others is one of humanity's treasured phrases. It is one of the characteristics that supposedly sets us apart from the other animals. We use the values imparted to it in judging others, as we are judged in turn. However, it remains an enigmatic term, carrying a host of definitions. And that's not counting the exceptions. Richard Joyce, for all his assertive title, isn't claiming to have the final word on morality. Instead, he's launching a project with areas of study that should be investigated further. Only one thing he insists on - as a product of evolution by natural selection, human beings will find the origins of that valued concept in our biological heritage. Joyce's treatise is tightly organised. Given he addresses this complex idea in just over two hundred pages, discipline with words is a must. There are but six chapters in which to deal with questions plaguing our species since at least the invention of writing. In that short stack, he ties anthropology, sociology, evolutionary psychology and other fields together in a very neat package. Even such a short presentation doesn't force him to be terse. The material is clearly presented and sprinklings of wit keep it from bogging the reader down. However, the proposals are carefully, if succinctly, offered and the reader's attention must not flag. Since "morality" hinges on the interactions between humans [other animals, whatever their behaviour traits, are deemed "amoral"] the key in Joyce's analysis is "reciprocity". Reciprocity hinges on a host of factors, from the genetic proximity of relatives to what kind of reputation one has - even across a large group. Game theory has been employed to demonstrate the variations reciprocity can achieve and the lengths to which it might go. The other aspect of interaction is language. For Joyce, setting moral standards and assessing behaviour against these can only be effective when the norms are understood. It's not possible to derive moral values from actions alone. The expression of moral statements and the expectation that these will be respected is a significant aspect of maintaining human communities. The exchange of views within a group and the acceptance of certain behaviour patterns strengthens the identity of the community. As values were tested, individuals could discern who among the group could be trusted, particularly in times of difficulties. Those accepting the norms are more likely to gain status and, hence, reproductive success. These conditions lead to reinforcement of the values under consideration, making a moral sense an innate human characteristic. Not only is the application of moral values universal, but these values are projected beyond the small group to more extended communities with seamless ease. Joyce makes no attempt to define when, or even where, this process began. It was sufficiently distant in time to have made a sense of moral values part of the baggage our species carried out of Africa. Having concluded that there's sufficient evidence to warrant declaring the morality is a evolved trait, Joyce asks "So what?" in a "philosophical tone of voice". This "tone" is applied to a number of philosophers who have addressed the issue of morality as a result of evolutionary development. He examines "The Naturalistic Fallacy" that has been attributed to George Moore early in the 20th Century. The claim imputed to Moore, that "ought" cannot be derived from "is", is misdirected, says Joyce. Several scholars, such as Robert Richards, William Casebeer and Daniel Dennett are reviewed on this and other issues - what, for example, is "virtue" and does it determine what is "ethical"? From this, Joyce moves to a discussion of which moral standards we should value. He is careful to caution readers not to feel they should derive specific moral beliefs from evolution. There's a massive leap from evolution giving us a moral sense to which elements we choose to apply it to. The capacity for moral judgement doesn't provide a prescription for specific behaviours. Although Joyce is hardly the first philosopher to consider our evolutionary roots for ethics and morality, the succinct approach and clear writing make this an excellent starting point for someone new to the concept. Avoiding arcane propositions and pedantic language, the author provides a clear pointer for future study. No reader should feel intimidated by the prospect of taking up this book. We need more such work and workers dealing with defining what makes a human being. [stephen a. haines - Ottawa, Canada]
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